Sunday 30 August 2009
Monday 10 August 2009
Poisonous Snakes
Snakes and People Snake PhobiasSnakes In and Around the Home
Snake Phobias
Some people have such an overwhelming, irrational fear of snakes that the phobia may restrict their lifestyles. This fear - known as ophidiophobia - may cause such people to avoid all areas where there is the slightest chance that a serpent could be encountered. Some cannot enjoy gardening or their own backyards, let alone a hike in the country or a summer dip in the local pond. Many victims of this phobia cannot view a movie or photograph of a snake without experiencing acute anxiety, and could not bear to read this publication. If you know such a person, let them know that effective treatment is available. Tell them to contact their doctor or local medical clinic for a referral and get back to enjoying the outdoors!
Snakes In and Around the Home
Despite the harmless and beneficial nature of snakes, there are still some people who, for whatever reasons, want to discourage them from inhabiting their yards. Throughout the warm months - and particularly in the spring when the mating season and the need to bask causes snakes to be more obvious than usual - we get calls from people wanting to get snakes away from their homes. As with most things in life, the solution requires tradeoffs which should be thoughtfully weighed against the dubious inconvenience of having a snake or two around the yard.
While the adaptability and perseverance of our common snakes makes them extremely difficult to eliminate entirely, removing potential shelter can significantly reduce the number of snakes in an area. Shelter for snakes is almost anything close to the ground that they can enter or get beneath to avoid predators and extreme temperatures. Boards on the ground, log and leaf piles, cracks and crevices in foundations, rock walls, ground-hugging shrubbery, dense patches of vegetation and narrow spaces beneath decks and outbuildings are all popular forms of cover. The number of snakes around a home can be reduced by sealing or removing some or all of these shelters, but use common sense. A nearly snake-free yard would have a wide, close-cut lawn extending right to a tightly sealed foundation: no flower gardens, no rocks, no shrubbery. Unless you really want to surround yourself with a boring, uninviting landscape, it is much easier to live with an occasional snake in the yard.
A snake in the house is another matter. While milk snakes may live undiscovered in rock foundations for generations and the pretty little "ringnecks" may survive comfortably amid the debris of a dirt-floored crawl-space, most snakes - especially garter snakes - end up in houses by accident. They cannot live in such habitats for long. Most are victims of falls and a poor sense of direction. They usually turn up in the spring, having hibernated in the foundation and emerged on the wrong side of the wall.
A snake in the house - especially in the typically jumbled cellar - is not an easy animal to locate. If it's any consolation, the snake will probably avoid living areas. If you can find it, check to be certain that it is a harmless snake, grab it with a pair of work gloves, and let it go outside. If the snake does not present itself, it may be lured out by the warmth of a heating pad or a sunlamp shining on a damp towel (but beware of the fire hazard!) It can also be trapped by placing "glue boards" (normally used for rodent control and available at hardware and agricultural stores) against walls in an area that the snake is likely to cross. Glue boards should be checked daily; captured snakes can be released unharmed with a little help and an application of common cooking oil.
There are no safe, effective snake repellents capable of keeping snakes away from yards or pools. However, if snakes are inhabiting small, confined areas - such as that crevice behind the front steps - a few tablespoons of naphthalene ("moth balls") may temporarily drive them out so that the entrance can be sealed.
History of Snakes
Snakes are the most modern of reptiles, first appearing in the fossil record during the time of the dinosaurs. It is thought that they evolved from ground dwelling or burrowing lizards that exploited the survival advantages to be found in a cylindrical, legless body. They gave up external ears and developed clear scales to shield their ever-open eyes from dust and damage. They evolved elongated internal organs, specialized muscles and resilient, scaled skins of varied pattern and color that provided camouflage and some limited protection from predators and the elements. They also evolved a host of instinctive behaviors that enabled them to find and catch prey, hide from predators, reproduce and survive in a great variety of climates. Tunnelling beneath dirt and sand, swimming in the seas, climbing in the crowns of trees and crawling on the land, snakes became integral components of varied ecosystems throughout the world. Some evolved infrared heat sensors to find prey in the darkness of night or burrow. Some developed venoms (and the apparatus to deliver them) of such exquisite complexity and design that - unlike most biochemical substances - they cannot yet be manufactured through biotechnology or genetic engineering. In short, snakes are incredibly successful, unique and remarkable animals, well deserving of our respect and admiration.
Why, then, do so many people burden themselves with an irrational, senseless fear of snakes and an unwarranted prejudice toward them? The answer lies in the power and longevity of myth.
For centuries, snakes have figured prominently in the religions, customs and folklore of people throughout the world. To early humans, snakes must have possessed seemingly magical, almost supernatural attributes. They had the ability to move without legs over and through all types of terrain, vegetation and water. They had the ability to find, capture and eat prey without the aid of appendages, as well as to periodically shed an old skin and the ravages of time to reveal a new, brightly hued mantle. They could arise in the spring, resurrected from the ice of winter, and, in a few cases, could cause sickness or death with a single bite. A science fiction writer could scarcely ask for a better model, so it is not surprising that snakes gave rise to all manner of tall tales and myths.
The fear of snakes is an old, deeply entrenched form of prejudice, born of ignorance and perpetuated through superstition and myth. It is time that we stop judging these fascinating reptiles on the basis of folklore and ignorance.
Common Snakes
While it is unlikely you will ever find a venomous snake in Massachusetts, odds are good that if you spend any time outdoors you will eventually encounter one or more species of harmless snakes. Five common snakes account for the majority of sightings in Massachusetts.
Undoubtedly, the most commonly encountered snake is the garter snake. This prolific, adaptable species thrives in suburban habitats and often utilizes the shelter provided by shrubbery, mulch, stonewalls and cracked masonry around houses. Active by day, it is often observed in the morning, warming itself on stairs and sidewalks exposed to the sun.
The milk snake makes use of many of the same habitats as the garter snake and will sometimes enter buildings in search of mice, its favored prey. Though quite common, its secretive nature and nocturnal habits make it less likely to be encountered than the garter snake. Occasionally, it can be seen sunning itself on spring and early summer mornings.
A small, common, secretive species, the ringneck snake is rarely found in the open. This inoffensive, pretty snake with the bright band around its neck is sometimes encountered in damp or dirt-floored basements that offer ample food in the form of salamanders and insects.
Frequently encountered by fishermen and boaters, the water snake is one of our most prolific species and can be found in virtually all pond, river and wetland habitats throughout the state. Water snakes are often reported by home-owners who find them in the spring as they disperse from hibernation sites. Though large individuals may look quite sinister with their triangular heads and heavy bodies, these stocky eaters of fish and frogs are harmless and should not be confused with the venomous cottonmouth "water moccasins" of the southeastern states.
The "blacksnake" or black racer is a long, slender "sight-hunter" known for its speed and agility. (Its top speed is actually only 3.6 miles per hour.) It is usually encountered in rural habitats of mixed brush, field and forest. Although this alert, inquisitive reptile often raises its head up to observe approaching people or other disturbances (and may even follow people for short distances to satisfy its curiosity) it quickly turns tail and flashes away at the slightest hint of danger.
"The Great Pretender"
Though relatively rare, a chance encounter with a hognose snake is always memorable. This harmless "great pretender" puts on such a fearsome display when alarmed that it actually looks and sounds far more dangerous than either of our venomous snakes! Sometimes called the "puff adder," this habitual eater of toads will inflate its body, hiss loudly, lunge about ferociously and spread a surprising cobra-like hood. Despite this impressive appearance, it almost never bites.
If this incredible bluff fails to drive off the offender, the hognose will writhe about, vomit, roll over on its back and let its tongue loll out. In short, it puts on the appearance of a thoroughly dead snake. If turned upright, the snake will immediately roll on its back again. When the danger is past, however, the hognose will cautiously raise its head, turn over, and be off about its business.
Venomous Snakes
There are only two venomous snakes in Massachusetts - the timber rattlesnake and the copperhead. (Contrary to popular belief, there are no venomous "water moccasins" in the Bay State, only harmless water snakes.) Statewide, populations of our two endangered venomous snakes are believed to number no more than a few hundred individuals. Due to a host of problems, these populations are probably still declining despite rigorous efforts to protect them. Our "rattlers" are now known to exist at only a dozen or so widely scattered sites in mountainous regions of the state; the distribution of copperheads is even more restricted. As a result, most of Massachusetts is completely devoid of venomous serpents.
The chance of receiving a venomous snake bite is further reduced by the fact that both species are shy and reclusive. Like all snakes, they will bite people only in self defense. If you do not willfully seek out and attempt to confront these species, the chances of being bitten by either are negligible. The toxicity of their venoms tends to be highly overrated; only one person has ever died of snakebite in Massachusetts, and that was more than 200 years ago.
Always keep in mind that many harmless snakes resemble venomous snakes in pattern and behavior. Milk snakes, water snakes, hognose snakes and other banded or blotched species are frequently mistaken for copperheads. Milk snakes, black racers and black rat snakes are often misidentified as rattlesnakes because they vibrate their tails rapidly when alarmed. The overwhelming majority of reports of encounters with poisonous snakes in New England are nothing more than cases of mistaken identity.
Identification is the Key
Snakes encountered around the home are almost certainly harmless and non-venomous. With just a little effort you can confirm this with an identification. It is a simple matter to learn to recognize our five common snakes at a glance. More secretive and rarer species can be easily identified through use of the identification guide. It is a curious fact that when we have the ability to put a name to something and understand its motivations, it tends to lose the power to frighten us.
Protection of Snakes
All snakes receive some protection under the Fisheries and Wildlife Laws and Regulations of the state of Massachusetts. They are protected as important members of our native wildlife communities and as valuable natural resources. None of them may be taken from the wild for purposes of sale. To report any violations of our wildlife laws, call toll free: 1-800-632-8075.
Our rare snakes are stringently protected under the laws and regulations already mentioned, as well as under the Massachusetts Endangered Species Act. Four species are involved: the worm snake, black rat snake, copperhead and timber rattlesnake. None of these may be collected, killed or held in possession except under special permit. (Although it is not presently listed under the Massachusetts Endangered Species Act, the hognose snake is also specifically protected from killing, collection and possession.) The penalties for killing, collecting, possessing or even harassing these species - some of which have declined dramatically due to illegal collection - can range as high as a $5,000 fine and/or imprisonment for 180 days. In addition, anyone killing an endangered species may be required to make a restitution payment of $2,000 per animal. The Commonwealth is very serious about protecting the priceless natural heritage these animals represent to present and future generations. If you observe one of these rare snakes in Massachusetts, report it to the Natural Heritage and Endangered Species Program, (508)792-7270.
Common species may be hunted, trapped or captured up to a possession limit of two. This "loophole" was deliberately left open so that budding biologists and snake enthusiasts could capture and study a few of the animals if they wished. However, many snakes do not adapt well to captivity. Curiosity can generally be satisfied through a few days of observation, after which the snake should be released in the same place it was found. It is illegal to transport and release ("translocate") any wild animal in Massachusetts. Although it is not illegal to kill common snakes, there is generally no reason for anyone to do so.
It is illegal to harass, kill, collect or possess the following snakes in Massachusetts:
Timber Rattlesnake; Copperhead ; Eastern Hognose Snake; Black Rat Snake; Worm Snake
The black rat snake
The black rat snake has a wide range from Central New York and Western Vermont west through Wisconsin and south into Extreme Northeast Texas and Georgia. There is a disjunct population in the St. Lawrence River Valley in both New York and Ontario, Canada. They can be found in rocky timbered hillsides, in the open grasslands, in trees or shrubs, and in farmland where they are attracted to the numerous rodents. In the wild, they will eat rodents and birds, often raiding nests for chicks or eggs.
Mutations and Varieties:
Red Albino: An amelanistic strain of the black rat that has red blotches on a white to buff background. This mutation is a simple recessive trait.
White Albino: An amelanistic strain that has yellow to buff blotches on a white background. This mutation is a simple recessive trait.
Brindle: An interesting mutation where the entire body is covered in black speckles instead of the normal total black coloration. The blotches can still be made out, but the speckling gives them an indistinct quality.
Cage Setup:
Minimum cage size for an adult black rat snake should be at least a 30 gallon long tank (36" long X 12" wide X 18" high), but preferably larger. The lid should fit on snugly and be made specifically for reptiles as rat snakes are notorious escape artists. The cage requires a temperature gradient in order to allow the snake to regulate its body temperature by moving to either the warm or cool end of the enclosure. There are different ways to achieve a good temperature gradient. One way is to use an under tank heat pad available from pet stores, or you can use a drug store heating pad. Place the heat pad under one side of the tank, and measure the temperature. This area should be approximately 82F to 85F. Now, measure the temperature at the cool end of the enclosure. This area should be in the high 70's. Other heating methods include heat tapes or cables that are likewise placed under one side of the tank to heat it. Regardless of how you heat the cage, I would recommend a rheostat or dimmer switch to regulate the amount of heat given off by these devices. A cheap dimmer switch purchased from a hardware store or home improvement center will work fine. A dimmer switch will allow you to fine-tune the temperature in the cage. The expense of a dimmer switch is well worth it if it can prevent the death of your snake. Proportional thermostats, such as those made by Helix Controls, are probably the best way to control heating devises. They measure the temperature inside the cage and automatically adjust the heat output of the heating devise to maintain the correct temperature. Although expensive, I use Helix controls due to their accuracy. No specific light requirements are needed, but a fluorescent light will allow you to better see your new pet.
Cage furnishings can be kept simple. For substrate one can use newspaper, aspen wood shavings, or cypress mulch. Pine or cedar wood shavings should NEVER be used as they contain TOXIC chemicals that could kill your snake. The cage will also need a sturdy water bowl large enough for your snake to completely submerse itself in. Snakes will often soak prior to shedding their skin or after eating. A rock large enough to be difficult for the snake to move should also be provided to allow the snake to rub against in starting a shed. Lastly, two hide boxes need to be placed in the cage: One on the warm side and one on the cool side to allow the snake to feel comfortable when inactive. A good hide box or container has just enough room for the snake to squeeze into after a meal. The tighter it is the more secure the snake will feel. A hide with a top entrance hole seems to be better than a side entrance. A third hide box is sometimes used which contains moist sphagnum moss. This humidity box will help in sheds and prevent over-soaking in the water dish. An optional item in the cage would be a climbing branch. For black rats I would strongly recommend a climbing surface of some kind. Any sturdy branch will do. Remove the bark of a live hardwood branch (no conifers) and bake it in the oven at around 350F for an hour. This should kill all microbes and other parasites like mites that may be on or in the branch. Black rat snakes are fairly arboreal, and will use a climbing branch regularly if provided. Using a branch and/or elevated platform will increase the useable amount of space in the cage, and will stimulate increased activity.
Baby or neonate snakes should be kept in smaller enclosures as it will let you monitor the snake better and will make the snake feel less vulnerable. A ten gallon tank or a Rubbermaid container make good enclosures for the first year. These cages are set up the same as the adult's cage above except the Rubbermaid container has no light and will need many small holes drilled into all four sides (1/8" is a good size). Remember, the heat pad or cable should be under only one end of these small enclosures and not the entire cage. Use a thermometer to check the temperatures! Guessing is not good enough.
Feeding:
Black rat snakes will do very well on a diet consisting solely of domestic rodents. Baby rat snakes will usually start out eating a new born mouse pink without any trouble. As the snake grows, you can feed increasingly larger mice. Baby rat snakes should be fed every 4 to 6 days while adults will do well on adult mice or rat fuzzies fed every 7 to 10 days. The size of the prey item should be no larger than the maximum diameter of the snake. I like to feed my snakes until satiated.
Small prey items like mouse pinks, fuzzies, and hoppers as well as rat pinks and fuzzies can be fed alive or dead depending on what the snake will accept and what is most convenient for the owner. Larger prey items should be fed dead to eliminate any chance of the rodent injuring the snake. Some owners prefer to buy rodents frozen in bulk to save money, and this can be a very convenient supply of food items. Other keepers prefer to buy live rodents at the pet store. Rodents can be bred at home, but unless you have a number of snakes to feed this is probably more trouble than it is worth.
Several things can be tried to induce a troublesome neonate to eat its first meal. First, place a newborn mouse pink inside the snakes enclosure overnight. If the snake does not eat it, then take the snake and the pink and place them both in a much smaller container like a deli cup overnight. If this still does not work, give the snake a couple days of rest then try a split brain pink. This involves taking a DEAD pink and cutting into the head to expose the brain. Place the split brain pink and the snake into a deli cup overnight. This will often work. If not, then try again with a lizard scented pink. Anoles and house geckos work well. Cut open the abdominal cavity of a frozen lizard and rub a thawed pink into this cut and place this scented pink and the snake into a deli cup overnight. This can also be tried using a small piece of lizard skin dried onto the head of the pinky. If a humidity box is used, then try placing a live pink on the outside lid of the humidity box. If this doesn't work, try a dead pink. These techniques and a lot of patience should get a troublesome hatchling to eat. However, it is the breeder's responsibility to make sure that any snake that they sell is eating unscented mice before selling it.
Another thing that will sometimes work to get a troublesome baby to eat is to try a different food item. If available, a pink deer mouse will often elicit a very strong feeding response in most North American snakes of the genera Lampropeltis, Elaphe, and Pituophis. Although the information above is a bit frightening and at times gruesome, do not be discouraged as most pet owners will never have to deal with these problems, especially with a rat snake. However, if you intend to breed your snakes then you will need to be familiar with these techniques.
Breeding:
Prebreeding Conditioning: Before beginning to breed or brumate your snakes, inspect them closely. They should be in optimal health and have good weight. They should have a minimum size of 36 inches and weigh at least 150 grams. If your snakes are smaller than this or are thin or otherwise not in optimal health, then wait until the following year to breed them. Otherwise, you may end up with a dead snake or experience problems like egg binding. The generally accepted method of breeding corn snakes involves a period of cooling called brumation which is similar to hibernation but the snakes still remain active to some extent. This involves first stopping feeding two weeks before the cooling period is to begin. This is to eliminate any remaining food still inside the snake, which could rot inside the snake during cooling and potentially kill it. After the two weeks are over, slowly decrease the temperature over several days until a temperature of about 55F to 60F is reached. Keep the snakes at this temperature for two to three months usually from December through February. Check on the snake's health frequently, and change their water weekly. If any signs of respiratory infections are seen then warm the snake up and treat the infection. Do not feed the snakes during this time. At the end of the cooling period, slowly warm the snakes up to the normal maintenance temperatures and begin feeding. Feed the females as much as they will eat in order to fatten them up before breeding.
Breeding: After her first or sometimes second shed, the female will be ready to breed. Start to introduce the female into the male's cage. Watch the pair closely, if the female is ready for breeding she will produce pheromones from her skin which will attract the male. The male will start to chase the female and rub his "chin" along her back. Actual breeding usually lasts about 20 minutes or so, but could last an hour or more. If they do not breed after an hour or two, separate them and try again in a day or two. If they do breed, then separate them afterward and reintroduce them every couple of days until she has been bred at least three times. This should ensure the fertility of the eggs. After the female has been bred, again start an accelerated feeding schedule. Feed the female smaller, easily digested food items every few days. She will need these nutrient reserves to produce the eggs. About six weeks after breeding, the female will undergo a shed cycle. At this time you will need to give her a nest box to lay her eggs in. This box should contain moist but not wet sphagnum moss in a closed dark container. I use a plastic storage box (shoebox) with a hole cut in the lid. Remember to cut the hole larger than normal, as she will be swollen with eggs. About 10 days after shedding, the female will become very active as she searches for the best place to lay her eggs. She will usually settle down inside the nest box and lay her eggs, from 5 to 30 depending on the size of the female, sometime over the next couple of days. If she settles into the water dish, you may want to replace it with one that is too small for her to enter and without a lid. This will encourage her to look for another place to lay her eggs. After she lays her eggs, feed her a smaller than normal prey item for the next couple of feedings. She will be weak from her pregnancy and small prey items will be easier for her to eat and digest. If a second mating and egg clutch are to be attempted, than again feed her on the accelerated feeding schedule. After her next shed, start to reintroduce the male as before. Remember though that a second clutch of fertile eggs is possible without a second breeding due to stored sperm. After the second clutch is laid, it will be even more important for the female to regain her lost weight. Feed her as much as she will eat until she has regained good weight.
Care for the eggs and babies: The eggs should be placed inside a container (plastic food containers without the lid work well) of coarse, damp vermiculite. The vermiculite should be mixed with water 1:1 by weight. This should make the vermiculite damp enough to just clump when squeezed together. The container should then be placed inside an incubator of some kind that will maintain a temperature of around 82F. Watch the eggs closely, if they begin to dimple or cave in, then add a little more water. The eggs should hatch in 6 to 8 weeks. Various incubators exist, but a good, small incubator is the Hova-bator incubator sold through pet supply dealers or at feed stores where they sell them for incubating chicken eggs. These incubators cost around $30 to $40, and are well worth the money.
When the eggs start to hatch, the baby (neonate) snake will slit open the leathery egg by means of a temporary egg tooth located on the tip of their snouts. They will often remain inside the slit egg for a day or two with just their heads sticking out of the slit. Do NOT try to force the baby out of its egg before it is ready, as it will be attached to an umbilicus and yolk sac. Forcing it out of its protective egg may result in killing the snake due to dehydration as water will be quickly lost through the yolk sac and umbilicus. Also, do not cut the umbilicus as it will cause the snake to bleed to death. The umbilicus will fall off on its own in a day or two so wait until the snake leaves its egg on its own. Set up each neonate into its own separate enclosure. I use plastic shoeboxes with many very small holes drilled into all the sides. Use paper towels as substrate and keep careful records of sheds and feedings. The baby snakes will usually start eating sometime after their first shed. Start them off on a live newborn pink mouse. If you plan to sell or give these animals to other people than provide them with these records.
References:
Conant, R. 1975. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern/Central North America. The Peterson Field Guide Series. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Mass. 429pp.
Griswold, B. V. 1996. Care and Captive Breeding of North American Ratsnakes. [Online] Available Here
McEachern, M.J. 1991. Keeping and Breeding Corn Snakes. Advanced Vivarium Systems, Lakeside C.A. 60pp.
Riggs, D. 1997. Black Rat Snake. [Online] Available Here
Black snakes in trees
Our Jack Russell Terrier discovered it first and started barking. Knowing it was the Black snake back, we just let it do it's thing and be on it's way. Later we saw it crawling around the gutters on our shed. Personally, I know a Black snake when I see one but I can certainly appreciate some people wouldn't have a clue what a Black snake looks like compared to a venomous snake, which brings me to my question.
Is it true that Black snakes are the only type snake that will crawl around house rafters or other high places in your house? I was told that venomous snakes are considered earth snakes that may crawl high on a mountain top but not in a home. If that is true, it may save many Black snakes lives if people knew that.
Please don't kill Black snakes as they are gentle and do a good job keeping unwanted rats, mice and yes those pesty birds called Starlings.
Sunday 2 August 2009
King Cobra A vicious snake
Cobra is the common name for members of the family of venomous snakes, Elapidae, known for their intimidating looks and deadly bite. Cobras are recognized by the hoods that they flare when angry or disturbed; the hoods are created by the extension of the ribs behind the cobras' heads. These reptiles are found throughout the Philippines, southern Asia, and Africa. The king cobra is the world's longest venomous snake. The king cobra, or hamadryad, holds the record length of 24 ft. for a venomous snake! The king cobra is unique among snakes in that it makes a nest for its eggs, scraping up leaves and other debris in which to deposit them, and remains in the nest until the young hatch. It averages 3.7 m (12 ft) in length but is known to grow to 5.5 m (18 ft). It is a thin snake, olive or brown in color, with bronze eyes. It is found in the Philippines, Malaysia, southern China, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula. The other cobra of Asia is known variously as the common, Asian, Indian, or spectacled cobra (due to the eyeglass-shaped pattern on its skin). It seldom reaches a length of more than 1.8 m (6 ft). The hood of the Asian cobra is, proportionately, much larger than that of the king cobra and is usually yellow to brown, with a black-and-white spectacle pattern on top and two black and white spots on the lower surface. This snake causes thousands of deaths each year in India, where it is regarded with religious awe and are seldom killed. It ranges from the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea to China and Malaysia. Most cobras are natives of Africa. Among them is the spitting, or black-necked cobra, found from southern Egypt to northern South Africa. This snake can spray its venom from a distance of about 2.4 (about 8 ft) accurately. Varieties of the spitting cobra range in color from dull black to pink, the lighter-colored ones marked by a black band around the neck. The ringhals, a different type of spitting cobra confined to southern Africa, is the smallest of the cobras, reaching only about 1.2 m (about 4 ft) in length. It is dark brown or black with ridged, or keeled, scales and light rings on the neck. The asp, or Egyptian cobra is widely distributed throughout Africa, being the most common. Contrary to folklore, cobras will seldom attack unprovoked. When threatened, however, the Cobra will make full use of its deadly force. Cobras are famous for their use by snake charmers because they respond well to visual cues, and are of spectacular appearance.
Scientific Data: Cobras belong to the family Elapidae (Reptilia: Serpentes). There is much discussion among researchers and taxonomists as to the actual variations of both the African and Asian species. Venom researchers have known of these differences for some time, but did not have a sound systematic framework on which to base this. It was not until recently, with an interest in developing more effective antivenins, that extensive scientific research has been conducted into these differences. Due to the ongoing research in the field, the classifications and taxonomic naming of the varieties of cobras is currently dynamic. I have attempted to use that information herein which is most widely accepted.
In the past, Asian cobras have been generally classified as Naja naja. More recent population systematics research has revealed a number of sub-species as follows: N. naja in northern india and Pakistan, N. kauthia in Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam; N. sumatrana in northern Malaysia and southern Thailand; N. oxiana in Pakistan, N. sagittifera in the Andaman Islands, N. atra in China, Taiwan, northern Vietnam, N. Philippinensis in the northern Philippines, N. samarensis in the southern Philippines, and N. sputatrix in southern Indonesia.
The king cobra is classified as Ophiophagus hannah (aka Hamadryad), the spitting cobra as Naja nigricollis, the Egyptian cobra as Naja haje, the water cobras as N. boulengerina, the tree cobras as N. pseudohaje, the "pink" cobra as N. pallida, and the shield-nose cobra as N. aspidelaps.
For further discussion on scientific classifications, systematics, and venom research, check the resources available in the "Cobra Reading Room